List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire

Sultan of the Ottoman Empire
Former Monarchy
Imperial
Osmanli-nisani.svg
Ottoman coat of arms
Mehmet VI Vahidettin (cropped).jpg
Last Sultan Mehmed VI
First monarch Osman I
Last monarch Mehmed VI
Style His Imperial Majesty[a]
Official residence Palaces in Istanbul:
  • Topkapı (1460s–1853)
  • Dolmabahçe (1853–1889)
  • Yıldız (1889–1909)
  • Dolmabahçe (1909–1922)
Appointer Hereditary
Monarchy started c. 1299
Monarchy ended 1 November 1922
Current pretender Bayezid Osman

The sultans of the Ottoman Dynasty ruled over a vast transcontinental empire from 1299 to 1922. At its height, the Ottoman Empire spanned from Hungary in the north to Somalia in the south, and from Algeria in the west to Iraq in the east. Administered at first from the city of Bursa in Anatolia, the empire's capital was moved to Edirne in 1366 and then to Constantinople (currently known as Istanbul) in 1453 following its capture from the Byzantine Empire.[1] The Ottoman Empire's early years have been the subject of varying narratives due to the difficulty of discerning fact from legend; nevertheless, most modern scholars agree that the empire came into existence around 1299 and that its first ruler was Osman I, khan (leader) of the Kayı tribe of the Oghuz Turks.[2] The Ottoman Dynasty he founded was to endure for six centuries through the reigns of 36 sultans. The Ottoman Empire disappeared as a result of the defeat of the Central Powers with whom it had allied itself during World War I. The partitioning of the empire by the victorious Allies and the ensuing Turkish War of Independence led to the birth of the modern Republic of Turkey.[3]

The Ottoman State was an absolute monarchy during much of its existence. The sultan was at the apex of the hierarchical Ottoman system and acted in political, military, judicial, social, and religious capacities under a variety of titles.[a] He was theoretically responsible only to God and God's law (the Islamic şeriat, known in Arabic as sharia), of which he was the chief executor. His heavenly mandate was reflected in Irano-Islamic titles such as "shadow of God on Earth" (zill Allah fi'l-alem) and "caliph of the face of the earth" (halife-i ru-yi zemin).[4] All offices were filled by his authority, and every law was issued by him in the form of a decree called firman. He was the supreme military commander and had the official title to all land.[5] After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Ottoman sultans came to regard themselves as the successors of the Roman Empire, hence their occasional use of the titles Caesar (kaysar) and Emperor.[4][6][7] Following the conquest of Egypt in 1517, Selim I also adopted the title of caliph, thus claiming to be the universal Muslim ruler.[b] Newly enthroned Ottoman rulers were girded with the Sword of Osman, an important ceremony that served as the equivalent of European monarchs' coronation.[8] A non-girded sultan was not eligible to have his children included in the line of succession.[9]

Although theocratic and absolute in theory and in principle, the sultan's powers were limited in practice. Political decisions had to take into account the opinions and attitudes of important members of the dynasty, the bureaucratic and military establishments, as well as religious leaders.[5] From the 17th century onwards, the empire entered into a long-term period of stagnation, during which the sultans were much enfeebled. Many of them ended up being deposed by the powerful Janissary corps. Despite being barred from inheriting the throne,[10] women of the Imperial Harem—especially the reigning sultan's mother, known as the Valide Sultan—also played an important behind-the-scenes political role, effectively ruling the empire during the period known as the sultanate of women.[11]

The declining powers of the sultans are evidenced by the difference in reign lengths between early sultans and later ones. Suleiman I, who ruled the empire when it was at its zenith in the 16th century, had a reign of 46 years, the longest in Ottoman history. Murad V, who ruled in the late 19th-century period of decline, had the shortest reign on record: he was in power for just 93 days before being deposed. Constitutionalism was only established during the reign of Murad V's successor, Abdülhamid II, who thus became the empire's last absolute ruler and its first constitutional monarch.[12] Since 2009, the head of the Ottoman Dynasty and pretender to the defunct Ottoman throne has been Bayezid Osman, a great-grandson of Abdülmecid I.[13]

Contents

List of sultans

The table below lists Ottoman sultans, as well as the last Ottoman caliph, in chronological order. The tughras were the calligraphic seals or signatures used by Ottoman sultans. They were displayed on all official documents as well as on coins, and were far more important in identifying a sultan than his portrait. The "Notes" column contains information on each sultan's parentage and fate. When a sultan's reign did not end through a natural death, the reason is indicated in bold. For earlier rulers, there is usually a time gap between the moment a sultan's reign ended and the moment his successor was enthroned. This is because the Ottomans in that era practiced what historian Quataert has described as "survival of the fittest, not eldest, son": when a sultan died, his sons had to fight each other for the throne until a victor emerged. Because of the infighting and numerous fratricides that occurred, a sultan's death date therefore did not always coincide with the accession date of his successor.[14] In 1617, the law of succession changed from survival of the fittest to a system based on agnatic seniority (ekberiyet), whereby the throne went to the oldest male of the family. This in turn explains why from the 17th century onwards a deceased sultan was rarely succeeded by his own son, but usually by an uncle or brother.[15] Agnatic seniority was retained until the abolition of the sultanate, despite unsuccessful attempts in the 19th century to replace it with primogeniture.[16]

Deposed (bold font) → Sultan's reign did not end through a natural death

# Sultan Portrait Reigned from Reigned until Tughra Notes
1 Osman I
(Bey)		 Portrait of Osman I by John Young c. 1299 c. 1324 —
[c]
  • Son of Ertuğrul;
  • Reigned until his death.[17]
2 Orhan I
(Bey)		 Portrait of Orhan c. 1324 c. 1361 Tughra of Orhan
  • Son of Osman I and Mal Hatun;
  • Reigned until his death.[18]
3 Murad I
Hüdavendigar
(Sultan from 1383)		 Portrait of Murad I c. 1360 1389 Tughra of Murad I
  • Son of Orhan I and Nilüfer Hatun;
  • Reigned until his death;
  • Killed on the battlefield at the Battle of Kosovo.[19]
4 Bayezid I
the Thunderbolt		 Portrait of Bayezid I by Cristofano dell'Altissimo 1389 1402 Tughra of Bayezid I
  • Son of Murad I and Gülçiçek Hatun;
  • Captured on the battlefield at the Battle of Ankara (de facto end of reign);
  • Died in captivity in Akşehir on 8 March 1403.[20]
Ottoman Interregnum[d]
(1402–1413)
5 Mehmed I Portrait of Mehmed I 1413 1421 Tughra of Mehmed I
  • Son of Bayezid I and Devlet Hatun;
  • Reigned until his death.[21]
6 Murad II Portrait of Murad II by John Young 1421 1444 Tughra of Murad II
  • Son of Mehmed I and Emine Hatun;[22]
  • Abdicated of his own free will in favour of his son Mehmed II.[23]
7 Mehmed II
the Conqueror		 Portrait of Mehmed II by Gentile Bellini 1444 1446 Tughra of Mehmed II
  • Son of Murad II and Hüma Hatun;[24]
  • Surrendered the throne to his father after having asked him to return to power.[23]
— Murad II Portrait of Murad II by John Young 1446 3 February 1451 Tughra of Murad II
  • Second reign;
  • Forced to return to the throne following a Janissary revolt;[25]
  • Reigned until his death.[22]
— Mehmed II
the Conqueror		 Portrait of Mehmed II by Gentile Bellini 3 February 1451 3 May 1481 Tughra of Mehmed II
8 Bayezid II Portrait of Bayezid II by John Young 19 May 1481 25 April 1512 Tughra of Bayezid II
  • Son of Mehmed II and Mükrime Hatun;
  • Abdicated;
  • Died near Didymoteicho on 26 May 1512.[27]
9 Selim I
the Grim
(Caliph from 1517)		 Portrait of Selim I by John Young 25 April 1512 21 September 1520 Tughra of Selim I
  • Son of Bayezid II and Ayşe Hatun;
  • Reigned until his death.[28]
10 Suleiman I
the Magnificent or the Lawgiver		 Portrait of Suleiman the Magnificent by Nakkaş Osman 30 September 1520 6 or 7 September 1566 Tughra of Suleiman the Magnificent
  • Son of Selim I and Hafsa (Hafize) Hatun;
  • Reigned until his death.[29]
11 Selim II
the Sot		 Portrait of Selim II by John Young 29 September 1566 21 December 1574 Tughra of Selim II
  • Son of Suleiman I and Hürrem Sultan (Roxelana);
  • Reigned until his death.[30]
12 Murad III Portrait of Murad III by John Young 22 December 1574 16 January 1595 Tughra of Murad III
  • Son of Selim II and Nur Banu Sultan;
  • Reigned until his death.[31]
13 Mehmed III Portrait of Mehmed III by John Young 27 January 1595 20 or 21 December 1603 Tughra of Mehmed III
  • Son of Murad III and Safiye Sultan;
  • Reigned until his death;[32]
14 Ahmed I Portrait of Ahmed I by John Young 21 December 1603 22 November 1617 Tughra of Ahmed I
  • Son of Mehmed III and Handan Sultan;
  • Reigned until his death.[33]
15 Mustafa I Portrait of Mustafa I by John Young 22 November 1617 26 February 1618 Tughra of Mustafa I
  • Son of Mehmed III and an unknown woman;
  • Deposed in favour of his young nephew Osman II.[34]
16 Osman II Portrait of Osman II by John Young 26 February 1618 19 May 1622 Tughra of Osman II
  • Son of Ahmed I and Mahfiruz Sultan;
  • Reigned until his death;
  • Assassinated by the Janissaries.[35]
— Mustafa I Portrait of Mustafa I by John Young 20 May 1622 10 September 1623 Tughra of Mustafa I
  • Second reign;
  • Returned to the throne after his nephew's assassination;
  • Deposed and confined until his death in Istanbul on 20 January 1639.[34]
17 Murad IV Portrait of Murad IV by John Young 10 September 1623 8 or 9 February 1640 Tughra of Murad IV
  • Son of Ahmed I and Kösem Sultan (Mahpeyker);
  • Reigned until his death.[36]
18 Ibrahim I Portrait of Ibrahim by John Young 9 February 1640 8 August 1648 Tughra of Ibrahim
  • Son of Ahmed I and Kösem Sultan (Mahpeyker);
  • Deposed in a coup led by the Grand Mufti;
  • Assassinated in Istanbul on 18 August 1648.[37]
19 Mehmed IV Portrait of Mehmed IV by John Young 8 August 1648 8 November 1687 Tughra of Mehmed IV
  • Son of Ibrahim I and Hatice Turhan Sultan;
  • Deposed following the Ottoman defeat at the Battle of Mohács;
  • Died in Edirne on 6 January 1693.[38]
20 Suleiman II Portrait of Suleiman II by John Young 8 November 1687 22 June 1691 Tughra of Suleiman II
  • Son of Ibrahim I and Saliha Dilâşub Sultan;
  • Reigned until his death.[39]
21 Ahmed II Portrait of Ahmed II by John Young 22 June 1691 6 February 1695 Tughra of Ahmed II
  • Son of Ibrahim I and Hatice Muazzez Sultan;
  • Reigned until his death.[40]
22 Mustafa II Portrait of Mustafa II by John Young 6 February 1695 22 August 1703 Tughra of Mustafa II
  • Son of Mehmed IV and Emetullah Rabia Gülnûş Sultan;
  • Deposed in a Janissary revolt;
  • Died in Istanbul on 8 January 1704.[41]
23 Ahmed III Portrait of Ahmed III by John Young 22 August 1703 1 or 2 October 1730 Tughra of Ahmed III
  • Son of Mehmed IV and Emetullah Rabia Gülnûş Sultan;
  • Deposed in a Janissary rebellion led by Patrona Halil;
  • Died on 1 July 1736.[42]
24 Mahmud I Portrait of Mahmud I by John Young 2 October 1730 13 December 1754 Tughra of Mahmud I
  • Son of Mustafa II and Saliha Sultan;
  • Reigned until his death.[43]
25 Osman III Portrait of Osman III by John Young 13 December 1754 29 or 30 October 1757 Tughra of Osman III
  • Son of Mustafa II and Şehsuvar Sultan;
  • Reigned until his death.[44]
26 Mustafa III Portrait of Mustafa III by John Young 30 October 1757 21 January 1774 Tughra of Mustafa III
  • Son of Ahmed III and Mihrimah Sultan;
  • Reigned until his death.[45]
27 Abdülhamid I Portrait of Abdülhamid I by John Young 21 January 1774 6 or 7 April 1789 Tughra of Abdülhamid I
  • Son of Ahmed III and Rabiâ Sultan;
  • Reigned until his death.[46]
28 Selim III Portrait of Selim III by Konstantin Kapidagli 7 April 1789 29 May 1807 Tughra of Selim III
  • Son of Mustafa III and Mihrişah Sultan;
  • Deposed in a Janissary revolt due to his reforms;
  • Assassinated in Istanbul on 28 July 1808.[47]
29 Mustafa IV Portrait of Mustafa IV by John Young 29 May 1807 28 July 1808 Tughra of Mustafa IV
  • Son of Abdülhamid I and Ayşe Sine (Seniye Perver Sultan);
  • Deposed in a rebellion led by Alemdar Mustafa Pasha;
  • Executed in Istanbul on 17 November 1808.[48]
30 Mahmud II Portrait of Mahmud II by John Young 28 July 1808 1 July 1839 Tughra of Mahmud II
  • Son of Abdülhamid I and Nakşidil Sultan;
  • Disbanded the Janissaries in 1826;
  • Reigned until his death.[49]
31 Abdülmecid I Portrait of Abdülmecid I 1 July 1839 25 June 1861 Tughra of Abdülmecid I
  • Son of Mahmud II and Bezmialem Sultan;
  • Reigned until his death.[50]
32 Abdülaziz I Portrait of Abdülaziz 25 June 1861 30 May 1876 Tughra of Abdülaziz
  • Son of Mahmud II and Sultana Pertevniyal;
  • Deposed by his ministers;
  • Found dead (suicide or murder) five days later.[51]
33 Murad V Portrait of Murad V 30 May 1876 31 August 1876 Tughra of Murad V
  • Son of Abdülmecid I and Şevkefza Sultan;
  • Deposed due to his illness;
  • Ordered to reside in Çırağan Palace where he died on 29 August 1904.[52]
34 Abdülhamid II
The Great Khan		 Portrait of Abdülhamid II 31 August 1876 27 April 1909 Tughra of Abdülhamid II
  • Son of Abdülmecid I and Tirimüjgan Sultan;
  • Constitutional rule established, suspended then restored;
  • Deposed after the 31 March Incident;
  • Confined to Beylerbeyi Palace where he died on 10 February 1918.[53]
35 Mehmed V Portrait of Mehmed V 27 April 1909 3 July 1918 Tughra of Mehmed V
  • Son of Abdülmecid I and Gülcemal Sultan;
  • Reigned as a figurehead until his death.[54]
36 Mehmed VI Portrait of Mehmed VI by Sebah & Joaillier 4 July 1918 1 November 1922 Tughra of Mehmed VI
  • Son of Abdülmecid I and Gülistan Sultan;
  • Sultanate abolished;
  • Left Istanbul on 17 November 1922;
  • Died in exile in Sanremo, Italy on 16 May 1926.[55]
Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire[e]
(1922–1923)
— Abdülmecid II
(Caliph only)		 Portrait of Abdülmecid II 18 November 1922 3 March 1924 —
[c]
  • Son of Abdülaziz I and Hayranıdil Kadınefendi;[56]
  • Elected caliph by the TBMM;
  • Exiled after the abolition of the caliphate;[57]
  • Died in Paris, France on 23 August 1944.[58]

See also

Notes

a1 2 : The full style of the Ottoman ruler was complex, as it was composed of several titles and evolved over the centuries. The title of sultan was used continuously by all rulers almost from the beginning. However, because it was widespread in the Muslim world, the Ottomans quickly adopted variations of it to dissociate themselves from other Muslim rulers of lesser status. Murad I, the third Ottoman monarch, styled himself sultan-i azam (the most exalted sultan) and hüdavendigar (emperor), titles used by the Anatolian Seljuqs and the Mongol Ilkhanids respectively. His son Bayezid I adopted the style Sultan of Rûm, Rûm being an old islamic name for Anatolia. The combining of the Islamic and Central Asian heritages of the Ottomans led to the adoption of the title that became the standard designation of the Ottoman ruler: Sultan [Name] Khan.[59] Ironically, although the title of sultan is most often associated in the Western world with the Ottomans, people within Turkey generally use the title of padishah far more frequently when referring to rulers of the Ottoman Dynasty.[60] The full style of the Ottoman sultan once the empire's frontiers had stabilized became:[61]

"Sovereign of The Osman Family, Sultan es Selatin (Sultan of Sultans), Khakhan (Khan of the Khans), Caliph of the Faithful, Servant of the Cities of Mecca, Medina and Kouds (Jerusalem), Padishah of The Three Cities of Istanbul (Constantinople), Edirne (Adrianople) and Bursa, and of the Cities of Châm (Damascus) and Misr (Egypt), of all Azerbaijan, of Mägris, of Barkah, of Kairouan, of Alep, of Iraq, of Arabia and of Ajim, of Basra, of El Hasa, of Dilen, of Raka, of Mosul, of Parthia, of Diyarbakir, of Cilicia, of the Vilayets of Erzurum, of Sivas, of Adana, of Karaman, of Van, of Barbaria, of Habech (Abyssinia), of Tunisia, of Tyrabolos (Tripoli), of Châm (Syria), of Kybris (Cyprus), of Rhodes, of Candia (Crete), of the Vilayet of Morea (Peloponnese), of Ak Deniz (Mediterranean Sea), of Kara Deniz (Black Sea), of Anatolia, of Rumelia (the European part of the Empire), of Bagdad, of Kurdistan, of Greece, of Turkestan, of Tartary, of Circassia, of the two regions of Kabarda, of Gorjestan (Georgia), of the plain of Kypshak, of the whole country of the Tartars, of Kefa (Feodosiya) and of all the neighbouring countries, of Bosnia and dependancies, of the City of Belgrade, of the Vilayet of Serf (Serbia), with all the castles and cities, of all the Arnaut Vilayet (Albania), of all Iflak (Wallachia) and Bogdania (Moldavia), as well as all the dependancies and borders, and many others countries and cities"

b^ : The Ottoman Caliphate was one of the most important positions held by rulers of the Ottoman Dynasty. The caliphate symbolized their spiritual power, whereas the sultanate represented their temporal power. According to Ottoman historiography, Selim I acquired the title of caliph during his conquest of Egypt in 1517, after the last Abbasid in Cairo, Al-Mutawakkil III, relinquished the caliphate to him. However, the general consensus among modern scholars is that this transference of the caliphate was a fabricated myth invented in the 18th century when the idea of an Ottoman Caliphate became useful to bolster waning military power. In fact, Ottoman rulers had used the title of caliph before the conquest of Egypt, as early as Murad I. It is currently agreed that the caliphate "disappeared" for two-and-a-half centuries, before being revived with the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, signed between the Ottoman Empire and Catherine II of Russia in 1774. The treaty was highly symbolic, since it marked the first international recognition of the Ottomans' claim to the caliphate. Although the treaty officialised the Ottoman Empire's loss of the Crimean Khanate, it acknowledged the Ottoman caliph's continuing religious authority over Muslims in Russia.[62] From the 18th century onwards, Ottoman sultans increasingly emphasized their status as caliphs in order to stir Pan-Islamist sentiments among the empire's Muslims in the face of encroaching European imperialism. When World War I broke out, the sultan/caliph issued a call for jihad in 1914 against the Ottoman Empire's Allied enemies, vainly inciting the subjects of the French, British and Russian empires to revolt. Abdülhamid II was by far the Ottoman sultan who made the most use of his caliphal position, and was recognized as caliph by many Muslim heads of state, even as far away as Sumatra.[63] He had his claim to the title inserted into the 1876 Constitution (Article 4).[64]
c1 2 : Tughras were used by 35 out of 36 Ottoman sultans, starting with Orhan in the 14th century, whose tughra has been found on two different documents. No tughra bearing the name of Osman I, the founder of the empire, has ever been discovered, although a coin with the inscription "Osman bin Ertuğrul bin Gündüz Alp" has been identified.[65] Abdülmecid II, the last Ottoman caliph, also lacked a tughra of his own, since he did not serve as head of state (that position being held by Mustafa Kemal, President of the newly founded Republic of Turkey) but as a mere religious figurehead.
d^ : The Ottoman Interregnum, also known as the Ottoman Triumvirate (Turkish: Fetret Devri), was a period of chaos in the Ottoman Empire which lasted from 1402 to 1413. It started following the defeat and capture of Bayezid I by the Turco-Mongol warlord Tamerlane at the Battle of Ankara, which was fought on 20 July 1402. Bayezid's sons fought each other for over a decade, until Mehmed I emerged as the undisputed victor in 1413.[66]
e^ : The dissolution of the Ottoman Empire was a gradual process which started with the abolition of the sultanate and ended with that of the caliphate 16 months later. The sultanate was formally abolished on 1 November 1922. Sultan Mehmed VI fled to Malta on 17 November aboard the British warship Malaya.[55] This event marked the end of the Ottoman Dynasty, not of the Ottoman State nor of the Ottoman Caliphate. On 18 November, the Grand National Assembly (TBMM) elected Mehmed VI's cousin Abdülmecid II, the then crown prince, as caliph.[67] The official end of the Ottoman State was declared through the Treaty of Lausanne (24 July 1923), which recognized the new "Ankara government," and not the old Istanbul-based Ottoman government, as representing the rightful owner and successor state. The Republic of Turkey was proclaimed by the TBMM on 29 October 1923, with Mustafa Kemal as its first President.[68] Although Abdülmecid II was a figurehead lacking any political power, he remained in his position of caliph until the office of the caliphate was abolished by the TBMM on 3 March 1924.[64] Mehmed VI later tried unsuccessfully to reinstall himself as caliph in the Hejaz.[69]

References

  1. ↑ Stavrides 2001, p. 21
  2. ↑ Glazer 1996, "The Ottoman Empire"
  3. ↑ Glazer 1996, "War of Independence"
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Findley 2005, p. 115
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Glazer 1996, "Ottoman Institutions"
  6. ↑ Toynbee 1974, pp. 22–23
  7. ↑ Stavrides 2001, p. 20
  8. ↑ Quataert 2005, p. 93
  9. ↑ d'Osman Han 2001, "Ottoman Padishah Succession"
  10. ↑ Quataert 2005, p. 90
  11. ↑ Peirce, Leslie. "The sultanate of women". Channel 4. Archived from the original on 2007-12-03. http://web.archive.org/web/20071203045546/http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/H/history/e-h/harem.html. Retrieved 2009-04-18. 
  12. ↑ Glazer 1996, "External Threats and Internal Transformations"
  13. ↑ Bardakçı, Murat (25 September 2009). "Şehzadenin ardından basın öyle hatalar yaptı ki..." (in Turkish). Haberturk.com. http://www.haberturk.com/yazarlar/221818-sehzadenin-ardindan-basin-oyle-hatalar-yapti-ki. Retrieved 2010-07-16. 
  14. ↑ Quataert 2005, p. 91
  15. ↑ Quataert 2005, p. 92
  16. ↑ Karateke 2005, pp. 37–54
  17. ↑ "Sultan Osman Gazi". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FFBB4CD394874238F9. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 
  18. ↑ "Sultan Orhan Gazi". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FF31C7A21930E7131C. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 
  19. ↑ "Sultan Murad Hüdavendigar Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FF84BE542EF5DE616A. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 
  20. ↑ "Sultan Yıldırım Beyezid Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FFA6B896F16D985D5D. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 
  21. ↑ "Sultan Mehmed Çelebi Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FF34B8FF67F6C5B31A. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 "Sultan II. Murad Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FF20FF3F96B01BD67B. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 "Chronology: Sultan II. Murad Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D3136407999D5EC50F89B6BCD2C330978646. Retrieved 2009-04-07. 
  24. ↑ "Fatih Sultan Mehmed Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FF53E7C3A27F032B06. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 
  25. ↑ Kafadar 1996, p. xix
  26. ↑ "Chronology: Fatih Sultan Mehmed Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FF8CF4BCAC4E99512E. Retrieved 2010-07-15. 
  27. ↑ "Sultan II. Bayezid Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FF7AA0FE099CA14481. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 
  28. ↑ "Yavuz Sultan Selim Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FF12460496EB6D6255. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 
  29. ↑ "Kanuni Sultan Süleyman Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FF2AE88F745E500DEF. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 
  30. ↑ "Sultan II. Selim Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FF13A7BCEBE7AACE8E. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 
  31. ↑ "Sultan III. Murad Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FF3D203AAAB91E0915. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 
  32. ↑ "Sultan III. Mehmed Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FF64C4AADAD7425476. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 
  33. ↑ "Sultan I. Ahmed". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FF592DC0A84F0F0B22. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 "Sultan I. Mustafa". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FF712003DA70BD0AB5. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 
  35. ↑ "Sultan II. Osman Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FFC7D510DFD423D9CA. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 
  36. ↑ "Sultan IV. Murad Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FF65EEFD1584C88A42. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 
  37. ↑ "Sultan İbrahim Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FF3765F020A27124F8. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 
  38. ↑ "Sultan IV. Mehmed". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FFD9F59B9E0EA80610. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 
  39. ↑ "Sultan II. Süleyman Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FFE847D7E258FE1EFB. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 
  40. ↑ "Sultan II. Ahmed Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FF63739B4BDC036722. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 
  41. ↑ "Sultan II. Mustafa Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FF4210F2141CE3DF0E. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 
  42. ↑ "Sultan III. Ahmed Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FF80427305DE490274. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 
  43. ↑ "Sultan I. Mahmud Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FF3647010FE3D42BA1. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 
  44. ↑ "Sultan III. Osman Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FF12FDA3BC6C07BFB6. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 
  45. ↑ "Sultan III. Mustafa Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FF53CDC73477F4D04D. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 
  46. ↑ "Sultan I. Abdülhamit Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FFA7C2563442DA77E3. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 
  47. ↑ "Sultan III. Selim Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FFD66033042BB56AC7. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 
  48. ↑ "Sultan IV. Mustafa Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FF6B1EAE8878B0E38D. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 
  49. ↑ "Sultan II. Mahmud Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FF3E25556277459A0C. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 
  50. ↑ "Sultan Abdülmecid Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FFB8229EA01286E253. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 
  51. ↑ "Sultan Abdülaziz Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FF02887D8ABC12653B. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 
  52. ↑ "Sultan V. Murad Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FF133DF7E081CE0541. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 
  53. ↑ "Sultan II. Abdülhamid Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FF47B708868ACC0564. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 
  54. ↑ "Sultan V. Mehmed Reşad Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FF181C1E909B6AD5ED. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 
  55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 "Sultan VI. Mehmed Vahdettin Han". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313A79D6F5E6C1B43FF63A3ECD73B1F991E. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 
  56. ↑ As̜iroğlu 1992, p. 13
  57. ↑ As̜iroğlu 1992, p. 17
  58. ↑ As̜iroğlu 1992, p. 14
  59. ↑ Peirce 1993, pp. 158–159
  60. ↑ M'Gregor, J. (July 1854). "The Race, Religions, and Government of the Ottoman Empire". The Eclectic Magazine of Foreign Literature, Science, and Art (New York: Leavitt, Trow, & Co.) 32: p. 376. OCLC 6298914. http://books.google.com/?id=1MYRAAAAYAAJ&printsec=toc#PPA376,M1. Retrieved 2009-04-25. 
  61. ↑ Ozgen, Korkut. "The Ottomans History". TheOttomans.org. Archived from the original on 2008-01-11. http://web.archive.org/web/20080111092617/http://www.theottomans.org/english/family/index.asp. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 
  62. ↑ Glassé, Cyril, ed (2003). "Ottomans". The New Encyclopedia of Islam. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press. pp. 349–351. ISBN 9780759101906. OCLC 52611080. http://books.google.com/books?id=focLrox-frUC&printsec=frontcover#PPA349,M1. Retrieved 2009-05-02. 
  63. ↑ Quataert 2005, pp. 83–85
  64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 Toprak 1981, pp. 44–45
  65. ↑ Mensiz, Ercan. "About Tugra". Tugra.org. Archived from the original on 2007-10-25. http://web.archive.org/web/20071025010127/http://www.tugra.org/en/hakkinda.asp. Retrieved 2009-02-06. 
  66. ↑ Sugar 1993, pp. 23–27
  67. ↑ As̜iroğlu 1992, p. 54
  68. ↑ Glazer 1996, "Table A. Chronology of Major Kemalist Reforms"
  69. ↑ Steffen, Dirk (2005). "Mehmed VI, Sultan". In Tucker, Spencer. World War I: Encyclopedia. Volume III: M–R. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. p. 779. ISBN 9781851094202. OCLC 162287003. http://books.google.com/books?id=B1cMtKQP3P8C&printsec=frontcover#PRA2-PA779,M1. Retrieved 2009-05-02. 

Bibliography

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